The paper should be presented as a Journal opinion article and address Essay

The paper should be presented as a Journal opinion article and address an economic issue of current interest to Wall Street Journal readers - Essay Example The expedition in launching the mars exploration spacecraft has triggered a heated debate on the wall street journal in the past with many arguments being centered on the economics of launching the mars orbiter at an exorbitant cost while many of the Indian citizens continue to languish in poverty and living at absolute wanton. However, before such criticisms, people should be aware that governments are responsible of management of a country’s resources for the best interest of the inhabitants of the countries. Economic viability of projects informs the government in the most profitable investments to undertake. Proper evaluation of such a projects economic viability would help in advising a government on investing in the right investments or otherwise. In an article, dated 5 Nov 2013, one WSJ staff makes a collection of many of the comments that circulated among social media platforms in the wall street journal concerning the $73 million mission in undertaking mars exploration by India (Anon, para 1-3). According to many of the comments was that this was a huge undertaking that was spending so much amount of public funds, which would be otherwise spent, on improving the livelihoods of majority of the Indians through provision of food, water, improved sanitation and such other measures that would improve on their livelihoods. Nevertheless, there were also a number of comments who would reason in support of the expedition and reason that the long-term benefits to be realized through the exploration outweighed the capital investment devoted to the exploration exercise. While all opinions are justifiable, this paper chooses to object to the opinions of those who would question the investment through supporting the undertaking by the Indian government. Economic advancement and development within any economy has its roots embedded in research and development. Space exploration is therefore very essential especially within the 21st century as we

Theories of Development Essay Example for Free

Theories of Development Essay Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980) Piaget focuses on cognitive development; he was all about the child centred approach, he believed children are active learners and make sense of the world through their own experiences. Piaget believed that a child develops through a series of pre-determined stages to adulthood and said that a child needs to be at a specific stage of development to learn new concepts. His theory is concerned with the children rather than all learners and it focuses more on the development and not so much the learning which means this theory doesn’t really co-inside with learning of information and specific behaviours. Piaget influences current practise because the EYFS states that we need to have a balance of child initiated activities and children can be independent learners. We also have free flow within the setting which will highlight the child centred approach that Piaget believed in. He has also influenced the approach to managing children’s behaviour through looking at a child’s moral development through their point of view rather than an adult. Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) Freud focuses on the psychoanalytical theory; he was particularly interested in the development of characteristics and personality. Freud believed we have an unconscious mind that is split into three parts and this this makes up our personality; the id, ego and superego. The id is where all our desires and needs come from and can be known as the selfish and passionate component of our personality e.g. a baby will cry and cry to be fed, not thinking of how tired their parent/carer may be. The ego is where we start to consider consequences of our actions and is known as the common sense part of our personalities e.g. if a child wants something but knows they have to ask nicely or wait patiently they will do so in order to meet their needs or desires. The superego is where we start to think about the moral requirements, if you have misbehaved your conscience will affect your ego and make you feel guilty, if you are being rewarded for something good, your ego-ideal will reward your ego with pride and confidence. Freud believed that with age these stages will develop in your personality. Freud influences current practise because we now think about the child’s wants and needs from their point of view. We wouldn’t take away a small child’s comforter because their id has made them believe they want it and need it, they would become very distressed if we did so. Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) Maslow had a humanist approach to his theory, his theory was about motivation and personality, he believed in a hierarchy of needs and these needs needed to met in order fulfil their potential or ‘self-actualisation’. He believed you would have to reach all previous levels of the pyramid to become a fulfilled person. Maslow believed motivation and personality are linked to our basic needs being met. He also believed that every person has the potential to become self-actualized however some factors can hinder progress i.e. a family’s income being affected through the parent losing their job would affect a few of the hierarchy points. Maslow influences current practise within the early years setting because the professionals need to think about the environment that is being created for the children as well as developing strong relationships. We need to try and meet the basic needs such as warmth, food, shelter and to form a good relationship we need to provide love, care and promote self-esteem. Albert Bandura (born 1925) Bandura has a social learning approach to his theory and this is another behaviourist approach. Bandura believes in conditioning through positive and negative reinforcement, and through observing people around you (observational learning). He believes that if one observes another person they will pick up and learn how to act in certain situations through modelling another person’s behaviour. Bandura’s behaviourist approach shows he does believe that not all observed actions will lead to a change in behaviour, if a child observes someone they may just take in the information rather than modelling what they have observed. Bandura influences current practise because we praise positive behaviour in order for children to do it again and ignore negative behaviour in hoping the children wouldn’t repeat it. We also act as good role models for the children to observe and copy our behaviour i.e. being polite with please and thank you, sharing and being kind to our friends. B. F Skinner (1904 – 1990) Skinner is known for developing the behaviourist approach but he also has the operant conditioning approach to his theory. He believed we would shape behaviour; we would promote desired behaviour with rewards such as stickers, praise, attention and treats, and positive reinforcement would help aid in learning. He also believed in reinforcing undesired behaviour with punishment in hoping this would stop children from repeating this behaviour. He also believes the rewards and reinforcement should be done in good time after the behaviour has occurred or it would not have the desired effect i.e. straight away, if delayed it may not register to the child what behaviour caused for this. The rewards and reinforcement shouldn’t be expected all the time so frequency needs to be considered, its best to not reward or reinforce every time, this would mean they wouldn’t expect it all the time and would constantly show wanted behaviour because unexpectedly they would receive a reward and would want this again. Skinner influences current practise because we have behaviour policies that families have to comply with. We also praise good behaviour and when a child achieves something we reward with stickers. We try to avoid undesired behaviour happening again by using punishments such as time out. John B. Watson (1878 – 1958) Watson was a behaviourist theorist; his theory is that classical conditioning offers a basic explanation of how a child can develop through learning by association, e.g. when the fire bell goes off, children will associate it with lining up. Some of his work was based on showing phobia’s and association, e.g. some children have a fear of needles because they associate this with the pain they felt before. Watson influences current practise because we now have routines and have set areas for certain activities, e.g. when we are sat at the red table this will be for arts and design. Social Pedagogy Social pedagogy is about the holistic wellbeing and education, it is a shared responsibility between parents and society as a whole. It develops children and young people’s knowledge of what is expected of them as an individual in society. It helps them gain skills in learning, coping with emotions and physical skills; it’s there to teach children and young people how to become a valued member of society. Social pedagogy has a hands on approach to the younger generation and believes that it is not just up to the parents to do all the upbringing but it is the society too. Social pedagogy influences current practise because the Eyfs states that we should work in partnership with the parents, we also have government run settings such as sure start and these other help to families who haven’t had the best start in life. All of the theorists have different approaches and views but all give something to the current practise that we work alongside with.

Gmail from Google and its Potential Ramifications Essay -- Email Inter

Gmail from Google and its Potential Ramifications Internet technology is accelerating the rate of globalization. Email, in particular, is now one of the fastest ways for us to communicate with each other, and to do business, making our world much smaller and more immediate. This same technology that can enhance our lives and accelerates the pace of global change can also destroy our personal privacy at the same rate. The newest web based email service, which has gained more attention than most, is Gmail [1]from Google.com. Google currently hosts the most popular Internet search engine world wide. Google proposes to deploy a unique email service that will give users capability not available with other providers; most importantly 1GB of email storage space. Gmail will use Google’s sophisticated search technology to perform searches on a person’s email saved in their account. This searching feature allows a user to quickly locate and display relevant information from a previous email and not spend time scrolling through long lists of messages in email folders. Despite this new capability, Gmail has raised concerns from Internet users and privacy groups around the world. Another feature that Google plans to implement in the email service is targeted advertising. Google’s engines will search the content of a person’s email and display advertisements that are relevant to key words pulled from the messages. Many people see the idea that a company would scan personal email messages, for any reason, to be a great invasion of privacy and are protesting the deployment of this feature. Some privacy groups are suggesting that Google’s automated searches would violate the privacy laws of certain countries like Germany [2... ...services and Google should strive to remain ethical and committed to the privacy agreements made between the company and the users Bibliography Google.com, 28 Apr. 2004, https://gmail.google.com Jan Libbenga, 8 Apr. 2004 , The Register, 28 Apr. 2004, http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/04/08/gmail_germany/ Simon Davies, 19 Apr. 2004, Privacy International, 28 Apr. 2004, http://www.privacyinternational.org/issues/internet/gmail-complaint.pdf The Press Center, 2004, Google.com, 28 Apr. 2004, http://www.google.com/press/overview.html Google Zeitgeist, 28 Apr. 2004, Google.com, 28 Apr. 2004, http://www.google.com/press/zeitgeist.html Gmail Privacy Policy, 08 Apr. 2004, Google.com, 28 Apr. 2004, http://www.google.com/gmail/help/privacy.html Dawn Kawamoto, 29 Apr. 2004, CNET News.com, 29 Apr. 2004, http://zdnet.com.com/2100-1104_2-5202120.html

Clown with Long Nose by Walt Kuhn

â€Å"When art is made new, we are made new with it. We have a sense of solidarity with our own time, and of psychic energies shared and redoubled, which is just about the most satisfying thing that life has to offer. â€Å"If that is possible,† we say to ourselves, â€Å"then everything is possible†; a new phase in the history of human awareness has been opened, just as it was opened up when people first read Dante, or first heard Bach’s 48 preludes and fugues, or first learned Hamlet and King Lear. † (Russell 13) This new art spoken of, the coined â€Å"secret revolution† that was a part of the new phase opened up, was modern art. This revolutionary form began shortly before 1914 (Russell 126) and is still present today. It was during this time period that artist Walt Kuhn gained great popularity and his work Clown With Long Nose was painted. It is important, before looking at the painting, to first understand the purpose and direction modern art usually has. â€Å"The entire gamut of modern art can be viewed from the vantage point of the artist’s attitude towards the object, an examination which should throw some light on the larger problem of how the modern artist chooses to interweave art and reality and, ultimately, of what constitutes reality for him (Johnson 11). A major part of interpreting modern art lies within determining that reality. Viewers search for their own meaning in the painting since the simplicity of most modern works leaves much room for imagination. When the modernism phase of artwork began it was not exactly obvious to the public, but over time there â€Å"came about a general awareness that there was such thing as a modern sensibility, and that that sensibility had the key to modern life (Russell 126)†. It was thought that if one was modern they had to easily be able to notice changes of life and be accommodating of â€Å"the unconscious and the irrational† side of humans (Russell 126). These aspects will later influence the works of Walt Kuhn in his various oil paintings of the time. Born in Brooklyn, New York, a cultural mecca for all things up and coming, in the year 1877, Walt Kuhn began making a living out his craft at a young age (â€Å"American Modernist†). He sold his first painting when he was only 15 to a small magazine, and quickly chose the career path of an artist. Though he â€Å"did not emerge as a mature painter until he was fifty years old (Wall plaque)†, Kuhn ‘s cartoonist and set designer background helped him turn his â€Å"multi-faceted interests† into a lifestyle. â€Å"After he began cartooning professionally inn1899, Kuhn decided to acquire art training and traveled to Paris to study at the Academie Colarossi (Wall plaque). † He was a big fan of modernism, and so, despite his traditional tendencies, the form randomly showed itself in his own work. He found is theme in the mid- twenties when he began to paint large canvases featuring single figures, usually circus performers or clowns. (Wall plaque). † The figures may have represented a counterculture of the flamboyant, flapper time period of the twenties, or possibly, they could depict some part of Kuhn that maybe felt like an outcast or somewhat of an oddity in society. It is not really known but generally his pictures were â€Å"depicted with solem n demeanor (Wall plaque)† and not all that pleasant to look at. Contradictory to Kuhn’s norm however, â€Å"Clown With Long Nose has an unusually animated expression, addressing the viewer with a look of clever self-satisfaction ad mischievous delight (Wall plaque)†. This work is a very good representation of the artist in that it stays true to his circus character subject, and like cartoons, the painting plays on the hope that people’s sense of humor will appreciate it as a new way to think about and look at art. The reason it can be considered a modern work of art is the ability it gives its viewers to interpret. Unlike the preceding realist period, this work leaves the viewer room to wonder. Questions like â€Å"What is the clown smirking at? † and â€Å"What is he staring out? † can all be pondered while looking at the painting. It aesthetically pleasing enough and has just enough quirks to it to make this painting one to remember and a good example of what some twentieth century art looks like. Through his education and appreciation for the art of which he lived in, Walt Kuhn was able to create not a masterpiece, but a story with his Clown With Long Nose painting. It may not be the most serious or useful peace of artwork from the time period, and it more than likely does not have some deep message or meaning hidden behind its brush strokes; however, the 1936 painting is fun to look at. A viewer is able to look at it for what it is and determine his or her own personal value for the work. It is a good addition to the modernism period and to the Montgomery Museum of Fine Arts.

Media Management Manual

 A HANDBOOK FOR TELEVISION AND RADIO PRACTITIONERS IN COUNTRIES-IN-TRANSITION Media Management Manual John Prescott Thomas A HANDBOOK FOR TELEVISION AND RADIO PRACTITIONERS IN COUNTRIES-IN-TRANSITION Media Management Manual John Prescott Thomas  Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual Media Management Manual A Handbook for television and radio parishioners in countries-in-transition By John Prescott Thomas  © UNESCO 2009 ISBN No. 978-81-89218-31-7 Printed by Macro Graphics Pvt. Ltd.Published by: Communication and Information Sector United Nations Educational Scientific & Cultural Organization UNESCO House B-5/29 Safdarjung Enclave New Delhi – 110 029 Tel : + 91 11 2671 3000 Fax : +91 11 26713001 /02 e-mail: [email  protected] org Disclaimer The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or are a or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.The author is responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this publication and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of the UNESCO and do not commit the organization.  Contents Chapters Foreword Introduction 1 What’s the media game? 2 What are the media for? Media legislation, regulation and governance 4 Management structures and organisation 5 Strategic planning and financial management 6 Programme planning and production 7 Resource planning and resource management 8 Editorial management 9 Managing people Conclusion Appendices A A code of editorial principles and practice B A line-management structure for a typical broadcasting organisation C A plan for restructuring a broadcasting organisation D A glossary of financial terms E A guide to allocating overhead costs to budget centres F A guide to the financial aspects of a business plan G A matrix for a risk-management strategy H An outline format for a programme proposal I An outline format for a programme budget J An outline format for a resources booking form K An outline format for a management information system report L A checklist for programme review of a news-magazine format M A form for the authorisation of covert recording N A format for a job description O A format for an appraisal and career-development form Case Studies Case-History 1: How enforced radical change transformed a strategic plan Case-History 2: How alternative thinking made a successful series possible Case-History 3: How television and radio can work in partnership Case-History 4: How investigative reporting served the public interest The author Page 6 7 9 12 18 31 46 59 70 76 84 89 90 98 100 105 106 108 114 116 118 120 122 124 125 126 128 130 134 136 137 138  Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual ForewordToday, Public Service Broadcasting, whether run by public organisatio ns or privatelyowned companies, is not only challenged by political interests, but also by increased competition from commercial media. The advent of the digital age has ushered in an array of commercial satellite-to-cable channels that threaten public service broadcasting audience loyalties. If viewers are to be retained, there is a pressing need for more dynamic and innovative public broadcasting. Free from political interference and pressure from commercial forces, Public Broadcasting’s only raison d’etre is public service. It speaks to everyone as a citizen. Public broadcasters encourage access to and participation in public life.They develop knowledge, broaden horizons and enable people to better understand themselves by better understanding the world around them. With its specific remit, which is essentially to operate independently of those holding economic and political power, public service broadcasting provides the whole of society with information, culture, education and entertainment; it enhances social, political and cultural citizenship and promotes social cohesion. In the past ten years, UNESCO has been actively engaged in exploring more deeply the concept of public service by specifying the functions, particularly in the fields of education, science and culture, which it is meant to perform, and the means required.Member States called upon the Organization to support public service radio and television broadcasting so that it can fulfill its cultural and educational mandate. UNESCO has continuously supported capacity-building of media professionals, responsible for production, and programming, particularly in issues related to editorial independence, ethical standards and effective and dynamic management. It is in this context, and upon the request of a great number of developing countries media managers, that UNESCO has initiated this handbook. The manual is designed with a specific focus on Public Service Broadcasting, but it co uld be used by every interested individual or media practitioner. It’s a straightforward guide that can help make a broadcaster’s programming more vibrant and engaging.It also offers advice to media executives on how to refine their management structures and practices, to keep their companies operating smoothly. What’s more, it provides practical tips on how to create sustainable financial plans which will help propel public service broadcasters into the future. We believe that this reference book can enhance both the economic and the civic competence of journalists and broadcasters. We hope that it will promote a free and pluralistic journalism and assist broadcasters’ companies in becoming more independent and sustainable; both of which are fundamental for modern democratic societies. Armoogum Parsuramen Director and UNESCO Representative to Bhutan, India, Maldives and Sri Lanka Introduction If you’re looking for a theoretical textbook full of t rendy management jargon – or for a technical buffs’ guide to the latest electronic wizardry – this isn’t it. Nor will it give you a universal blueprint for the ‘right answer’ or the ‘best method’ – panaceas for which I’m repeatedly asked at international conferences and seminars but which don’t, I’m afraid, exist. What it will provide is a repertoire of practical management tools – approaches, structures, systems and techniques – which have been proved to work in a variety of broadcasting contexts and which are particularly relevant to countries-intransition. For whom is it intended?Though it includes a chapter on media institutions and governance, it’s not primarily concerned with the constitutional and political aspects of media management, which are already wellcovered in many other publications. Rather, it’s a hands-on guide for senior and middle managers who want to see their operations flourish and succeed in a rapidly-changing and increasingly competitive environment. Its aim is to help them make the most effective use of whatever levels of resources, money and staff are available within their own organisations. Rich-country colleagues who are already into HDTV, multi-platform distribution, large-scale webcasting, podcasting, mobile reception, interactivity, ‘quadruple-play bundling’ and the rest may find some of it old hat to them.I can say only that more than twelve years of working with broadcasters in countriesin-transition – many of whom have no real tradition of pro-active management and would envy the resources you had decades ago – have shown that this is exactly the kind of practical guidance they want and need. That’s not, of course, to imply that the latest technologies should be inaccessible or irrelevant to countries-in-transition. Indeed, given the speed of change, some of them may be in a position to ‘skip a technological generation’ in broadcasting, just as they have in adopting mobile telephones ahead of land-lines. But the basic management principles in the manual apply to them too. I’m indebted to many organisations and individuals for their contribution to developing these ideas.To the BBC, of course, where I spent most of my working (and therefore my learning) life. To Westcountry Television, for the experience of starting-up from scratch a completely new and ground-breaking operation and for introducing me to the world of commercial broadcasting. To the Cabinet Office Top Management Programme and its remarkable tutors, for some revelatory insights into modern management principles and practice. To the Thomson Foundation, the British Council, the UK’s Department for International Development, the Council of Europe and the OSCE for opportunities to work with broadcasters and governments in some  Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual we nty countries-in-transition; their assignments have been the source of much of the material in this manual. To UNESCO for making the manual possible. And to the very many professional colleagues and friends with whom I’ve been privileged to bat around ideas and opinions over more than forty years. Particular acknowledgements are due to Dick Bates and Zofair Ammar for their input on financial management and to Phil Speight for his suggestions on editorial and production practice. If there are errors in the manual the fault is, of course, mine alone. The terminology I’ve used is generally that of British broadcasting conventions and practice. (‘Regional’, for instance, usually efers to regions within a country, rather than to wider geographical groupings of several countries – like the Middle East or the South Pacific. ) Where that might risk confusion, I’ve tried to clarify what’s intended. Because its operations are more complex, many of the illustrations are taken from television but the principles are manifestly equally applicable to radio. We’re facing an era of change on an unprecedented scale and at unprecedented speed. Let’s together ensure that the media lead the way down the road of management reform and progress. That way the development of broadcasting can also bring with it broadcasting for development.John Prescott Thomas Bristol 2009 9 1 What’s the Media Game? 10 Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual T he truth is that nobody really knows – yet. The only thing that’s absolutely certain is that the old certainties have gone for good. The BBC was designed in the 920s on the pattern of the British civil service to run a monopoly. If it had stayed that way, it would now be as dead as the dodo. As will be any broadcasting organisation which fails to adapt to the new media environment. (And, sadly, the dodo doesn’t even know that it’s extinct: none o f us gets to read our own obituary. ) There’s no market more dynamic and fast-moving than that of the media.New technologies – and convergence among existing ones – are causing monumental shifts both in consumer behaviour and in the potential for content providers and distributors. Some will emerge as big winners; but the actual take-up by consumers is by no means universally assured and is constantly changing. (Viewers with access to 24-hour television news services currently watch them for only nine minutes a day on average; in Britain, ITV has already closed down its rolling-news channel. ) As digital technology brings with it a previously unimaginable proliferation of media outlets, the audience share of any individual broadcaster must inexorably fall.The figures are already a fraction of what they were even ten years ago: programmes once watched by  or 20 million viewers are now lucky to attract five million and the figures are still falling. In fact, in this new media world, to speak of broadcasting in its traditional sense may become an anachronism. Though people are still spending a lot of time in front of their screens, they’re devoting much less of it to viewing broadcast schedules. In 2006, internet use in Britain exceeded broadcasttelevision viewing for the first time; at the time of writing, Google’s UK advertising revenue has already overtaken that of the terrestrial commercial television channels. So content providers are increasingly integrating terrestrial transmission with satellite, cable, broadband and telephony.And with print: the web-sites of newspapers are increasingly indistinguishable from those of broadcasters; which raises interesting questions for regulators in countries where, historically, the regulatory regimes for the two means of publishing are significantly different. For broadband distribution of similar content, which rules should apply? DVDs, video-on-demand, interactive channels and vid eo games are all transforming the traditional viewing experience. PVR (‘every viewer his or her own scheduler’) enables the audience to by-pass commercial breaks, with major consequences for conventional advertising revenue. With the spread of broadband, the internet is becoming a distribution network on a scale inconceivable when its only access was by slow and expensive dial-up links.Mobile reception is making significant inroads, suggesting that ‘place-shifting’ will be the next step-change beyond (now long-established) time-shifting: viewers will be able to watch their own television on a laptop or other device anywhere in the world via the internet. And the simplification – and the cheapness – of authoring equipment and software means that anyone can now shoot and edit their own material and blog and vlog it world-wide over the net. (You can already 11 buy an Apple PowerBook loaded with Final Cut Pro for less than ? 200. ) The use by the professional media of more and more so-called UGC (user-generated content), both on-screen and in print, suggests that the ‘citizen journalist’ is becoming a reality.We’re seeing a democratisation of the airwaves – a major shift from a channelbased to a network-based world, from ‘push’ to ‘pull’ consumption. That doesn’t mean, of course, that ‘linear’ broadcasting will disappear; indeed, it’s likely to remain the principal content-source for very many people. But it will have to learn how to co-exist with many other competing outlets and to survive with much-reduced audiences. In the face of this revolution, what can conventional broadcasters with limited resources do? The answer is: stop being conventional. Even if many of the new opportunities are not realistic options for you, get rid of outmoded ideas, dismantle old-fashioned structures, abandon bureaucratic procedures and build in flexibility and f ast-moving adaptability.And even if (or, rather, especially if) you’re a publicly-funded outfit, learn the cost-saving lessons of successful commercial operations and apply them internally. Get competitive by optimising operational efficiency and cost-effectiveness. That or, I’m afraid, wave goodbye to your audience. You don’t actually need state-of-the-art technology to do this, though of course it’s nice to have. Nor do you need to have mastered the works of the latest management-speak gurus. What you do need is a different way of looking at things and the will to put that new thinking into practice. That’s what this manual is all about. 12 Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual Whats the Media Game? 2 What are the Media for? 13 I you’re a commercial broadcaster, the obvious answer is to earn money for your shareholders. But it’s not as simple as that. Even if you’re commercially-funded, you may well have public-service obligations written into the terms of your broadcasting licence. And even if you’re state-funded, you may have to supplement your income from public money by raising commercial revenue from advertising or other sources. There are now very few public-service broadcasters which are financed wholly and solely from public funds; the BBC, Japan’s NHK and ABC in Australia are the only major ones. The first two funded by a licence fee and the third by a government grant.So, one way or another, you’re quite likely to be operating in a ‘mixed economy’. Where do you sit in that market? As the range of digital opportunities grows, the argument that the spectrum is a scarce resource requiring firm regulation becomes less sustainable (more on this in Chapter Three). So we’re likely to see commercial broadcasters acting more and more as dealers in a commodity and radio and television stations finding themselves free to adopt an engaged editorial line, as newspapers have done for decades. The first signs of these changes are already with us: Fox News is a strong example of the second, with an explicitly-declared political agenda; examples of the first can be found almost everywhere.But, in news at least, it seems likely that ‘due impartiality’ will continue to be a requirement for broadcasters which are publicly-funded. Of course, most countries-in-transition aren’t there yet. How might their media position themselves? Let’s start from first principles. Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 19 states: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes the freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information through any media and regardless of frontiers. Very many countries have signed up to this declaration. So in how many of them is Article 9 observed?The answer is that only 20% of the world’s population live in such free-media societies. The ‘least free’ media environments are in Asia, where many governments see dissent and opposition as ‘not conducive to the general good’; in such countries We need to establish that free media are an essential element in civil society. That’s an idea which it’s still difficult to get past what we might call the ‘Ministry of Information mentality’. 1 Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual there’s a long way to go. But nor should western democracies feel complacent: in the 200 press-freedom league-table issued by Reporters Without Frontiers, while the Nordic nations led the field, Britain ranked 24th and the United States only 44th.We need to establish that free media are an essential element in civil society. That’s an idea which it’s still difficult to get past what we might call ‘the Ministry of Information mentality’. While governments will rightly have their own press and public relations operations, we should maintain that it’s not right for them to control directly – still less to monopolise – national broadcasting institutions. Even where they’re publiclyfunded, broadcasters should be free to treat information from government agencies exactly as they would treat information from any other source (with one or two exceptions, like dealing with national emergencies or natural disasters, which are considered in Chapter Three).Though western European nations haven’t, historically, been at all immune to the politicisation of broadcasting, the role of the media should nowhere be to act simply as a mouthpiece for the government of the day. Rather, their duty is disclosure in the public interest: the revealing of information and the holding to account of public institutions and individuals for their statements and actions. (Remember the old definition of news as ‘something that someone, somewhere, woul d rather you didn’t know’. ) It follows that public-service media should, overall, represent properly and fairly all voices in society. In particular, when a majority view has prevailed, they should be able to ensure that the views and interests of minorities are still safeguarded and find expression. Is this an utopian ideal? No – because it already exists in many countries.And because the ‘Ministry of Information’ model is becoming, in practice, less credible and sustainable almost by the week. Here are just five examples: n In an East Asian country, the authorities are anxious to ensure that the internet isn’t used to spread ‘incorrect’ ideas – so they apply filters in order to police web traffic. But inventive bloggers have got round this by devices such as spelling ‘democracy’ – a trigger-word – with a zero instead of an o. Anyone can read and understand it but the computer doesn’t re cognise it. This then becomes a cat-and-mouse game, with each side manoeuvring to keep one jump ahead of the other; information suppressed on one web-site also quickly pops up somewhere else. In an African country some years ago the government banned an issue of the major national newspaper which included an article critical of the authorities. This achieved little other than to make the government look foolish, because the article had already been published electronically and was available world-wide on the web. n In a country in the Caucasus, the state broadcaster made no mention for three days of a ferry disaster in which many had died. Meanwhile, everybody had heard about it on the grapevine and people were already demonstrating outside the ferry company’s headquarters, wanting to know what had happened to their relatives. (The demonstration wasn’t reported either. n In the Arabic-speaking world, some state broadcasters operate restrictive 1 regimes; but satellite broadcasting takes the independent voice of al-Jazeera to a television audience of many millions of their people in a common language. n In the former German Democratic Republic, long before satellite transmission was common, many television aerials in border areas were regularly swung towards the west to receive alternative sources of information and opinion. All this suggests that one of the best arguments for persuading politicians of the merits of free media is that imposing direct control doesn’t ultimately work. The sheer volume of web-traffic, for instance, will in the long term make it un-policeable.There are already more than 7 million servers in the world and that number is growing by a million a month; the world-wide web has 3,000 billion pages and another 2,000 are added every hour. China has already given up trying to control the Wikipedia web-site. Even where governments are rigorous in suppressing free expression, the idea that by doing so they control the w ay people think is often illusory. In the Soviet era, the two major state media mouthpieces were Izvestia (The News) and Pravda (The Truth). Among the Russian people, a well-known joke was that v Pravdye nye izvestia; v Izvestiye nye pravda: ‘There’s no news in The Truth and no truth in The News’.When people know that information is being suppressed or manipulated, they become contemptuous of the official media and find their own alternative sources and means of expression. And even when governments profess to act from the best of motives – maintaining national unity in the drive to development, for instance – the results can be counter- productive. The financial scandals of the 990s in South-east Asia showed how, far from protecting decent values, restrictive control of the media simply served to conceal massive corruption. If governments really want the media to be a tool for development, that should include being a tool for democracy.It’s therefore important for media practitioners to persuade politicians and officials that, in the modern global context, they have more to gain than to lose by promoting media freedom. Before 980 the Kenyan government tended to view the institutions of civil society more as competitors than as partners in development. There was deep suspicion of any organisation with the potential for developing an independent power-base – which included the media. The government was able to ensure that the population was only partially-informed by discouraging the coverage of civil action organisations: equipment would be confiscated, publishers would be detained and vital advertising revenue would dry up for fear of offending the authorities.But, as the country progressed from single-party rule to multi-party democracy, politicians began to accept that the state alone simply didn’t have the resources to deliver the development initiatives promised at independence. So the 989 Developm ent Plan finally acknowledged that non-state bodies had a part to play alongside government and that the role of the media was crucial in promoting the wider public interest. The lesson is clear. If a government imposes direct control on the media, then civil society will indeed become a rival rather than a partner; and the more restrictive 1 Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual the control, the more opposition elements will seek to exploit alternative outlets for their political advantage.Ultimately, governments are therefore better-served by public-service broadcasting which is firmly established outside the political arena. And, from the management point of view, it becomes increasingly difficult for a broadcaster to compete with rival outlets unless it has the credibility which comes from editorial independence. The experience of South Africa in 994 is perhaps the most positive recent example of a fundamental change in the government / media relationship. The South Afr ican Broadcasting Corporation, once an institution deployed explicitly in support of the nationalist government’s apartheid policies, was transformed into a force for democratic expression in which the broadcasters were given independent editorial responsibility.As one observer commented: For the tens of thousands who stayed glued to their screens for Election 94, the image of non-racial, non-sexist harmony and goodwill that was beamed into their living-rooms held out more hope for South Africa than many of the parties could offer. In Thailand, privately-owned newspapers gave crucial support to democracy in the free elections of 99 and went on to bring public opinion to bear on making politicians accountable and endorsing the rule of law. In 1996 the first non-government television station began broadcasting, with an emphasis on news and documentary output. Radio became even more daring in giving a voice to alternative views – to the extent that even the state media began to change. Sadly, such freeing-up of the media can be short-lived.In 1990, for the first time, two non-political appointments were made to the chairmanships of the state television and radio corporations of one central European country – and for two and a half years its broadcast media were actually among the most independent anywhere in Europe. It didn’t last: by 993 the government had won a ‘media war’ which removed their autonomy. It’s also ironical that, in the same country, some dissident publications which were actually tolerated in the later stages of communism have since been forced to close under the financial pressures of the new free-market economy. If the media lay claim to freedom of expression in the public interest, it follows that they must in turn conduct themselves ethically and responsibly if that reedom is to be justified (see Appendix A, Section 1). If they don’t, there will be many forces at large only too ready t o take their freedoms away. It’s also important to persuade politicians that media coverage is most effective when it starts from the audience’s point of view, not from the establishment’s. I was once in an Asian country when the government announced a plan to ensure that all its children should be immunised against polio – a marvellous initiative which deserved universal recognition. So how did the state broadcaster deal with it? By covering a press conference at which the minister extolled his government’s (admirable, I repeat) enlightenment.But what did the audience really need to know about the innovation? If you start from their point of view, you get quite a different order of priorities. What’s important to 1 them is: n The nature of the danger n What immunisation will do for your child n It’s universally available n It’s free n It’s safe n It’s painless (oral, not injection) n Here’s where to get i t. The Americans have a good term for this kind of information: news you can use. Politicians (who often don’t really understand how the media work) can be slow to realise that it’s an approach which would win them more accolades among their people than any amount of PR posturing.We practitioners need to work constantly to sell these messages. Whats the Media Game? 3 Media Legislation, Regulation & Governance 19 Media institutions Since the framework within which we work largely determines what we can and can’t achieve as managers, it’s worth considering the pros and cons of different systems. Designing a framework within which the media operate is a multi-layered process. Some elements will need to be specified in primary legislation; others may be delegated to an independent regulator with devolved statutory powers; media operators themselves will have their own internal codes of practice; and professional bodies may also endorse codes of ethics and sta ndards.One way or another, the framework needs to cover, essentially: n Media governance n The registration of media outlets n The licensing of media outlets (including licence fees) n The ownership of media outlets – particularly foreign- and cross-ownership n Licence award procedures n Licence compliance procedures n The regulation of media practice n Legal constraints on the disclosure of information be governed by regulatory codes which can be readily amended as circumstances change. An act of parliament, for instance, might establish the basic principle of observing acceptable standards of taste and decency but it’s the regulatory body’s code of practice which would interpret this broad intent in terms of the specific use of images, language or techniques. The regulator can then amend the rules in the light of experience without having to refer the matter back to government. Regulatory bodiesThis principle of regulation at arm’s-length from governmen t is also a safeguard against the media’s becoming a tool in the direct control of politicians: an aspect of the ‘separation of powers’ principle which is crucial in democracies. In Britain, politicians (of all parties) will from time to time fulminate against some perceived transgression by the BBC; but, historically, the minister responsible for broadcasting (again regardless of party) has always replied that the BBC is not a government agency, that he or she doesn’t exercise direct control over it and that the complainant should take the matter up with the BBC’s own (independent) Board of Governors. The Board of Governors has therefore acted as a ‘buffer’ between politicians and media practitioners: it has made the BBC a selfregulating body. In many parts of the world this is an alien concept.While working with British colleagues in one country-in-transition, we were told unequivocally by a minister that, if he’d had his way, we’d never have been invited to give advice: ‘I’d have chosen Primary legislation The media scene is developing at an extraordinary pace. Any system therefore needs to be flexible enough to accommodate rapid change without the need for the constant revision of primary legislation. So instruments such as broadcasting acts should do no more than establish the institutions and embody fundamental principles; their detailed application should 20 Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual someone from South-east Asia, where they know how to make the media serve the government’s interests. I also remember talking with the Minister of Information in a West African country who was under pressure from his fellow politicians to ‘stop the media doing what they’re doing’. With remarkable enlightenment – and bravery – he was trying to wean his colleagues away from the expectation of media manipulation and towards a culture in which th e government should expect to make its case to the people alongside alternative views. Sadly, he went in the next coup. A consultancy report on the state broadcaster in the same country showed how damaging political interference could be: Two factors are militating constantly against true professional independence: the formal relationship with the government and the limitations of resources, which are also funded by the government.These are having profound distorting effects, both editorially and financially. The country’s FM radio service is already proving an attractive vehicle for advertisers and has the potential to mitigate some of the financial problems. But government interference means that the organisation is not in full control of its own airwaves and cannot therefore plan its schedule for maximum audience-effectiveness. So, if there is a political requirement to carry at length a live event like a party rally, there are consequences both for the editorial balance o f the output and for revenueearning capacity. The regulatory system for commercial broadcasting is usually different from hat of the public services. In Britain, the government has delegated the overseeing of the industry to an independent regulatory institution – OFCOM, the Office for Communications, which governs the entire communications sector, including telephony and spectrum management (as does AGCOM in Italy) – with statutory powers to award broadcasting licences and to police the conduct of the operators. Again, regulation isn’t seen as a direct function of the state. But the British system is in the process of significant change. There has long been a view that it’s unacceptable for the Board of Governors both to govern the BBC and to sit in judgement on its performance.The BBC has therefore already been made answerable to OFCOM for a number of regulatory issues and that list is growing; the BBC has since re-constituted its Board of Governors as a more independent Trust. Many voices in the industry see this as no more than a holding measure and the beginning of the end of the Board of Governors concept. There are arguments that there should now be a single common regulator for all broadcasting outlets, whether publicly-funded or commercial, so that everybody is obliged to work to the same standards and be held to account in the same way. This would require the internal role of the BBC Governors to be fulfilled by non-executive directors sitting on a single corporation board, as with any other enterprise.That argument is becoming increasingly persuasive in a changing media world and this manual suggests that it offers a sound regulatory model which can be applied in most contexts. One of its advantages is that it can ensure equity of treatment for the three tiers of broadcasting – public, 21 commercial and community. (In South Africa, commercial and community broadcasters successfully lobbied the regulator to impose o n the SABC detailed public-service obligations which would reduce what they saw as unfair competition on their territory. ) Registration and licensing There can be no real objection to the principle of registering media outlets: the requirement to register a newspaper, for instance, can hardly be described as an interference with the freedom of the press.Indeed, it’s right that members of the public should be able to identify the owners and publishers of a newspaper – if only to know whom to sue if they think they’ve been mistreated in its pages. Registration is accepted pretty well universally. But it should be a right as well as a duty – not liable to refusal or withdrawal at the discretion of politicians or officials and not requiring periodic renewal. The licensing of newspapers is quite a different matter. Because it places the ultimate control of periodicals – and therefore of what they report and how they comment on it – in the hands of the licenser, it is indeed potentially a denial of press freedom.The only real purpose I can see for granting such licences is to have the power to revoke them and so, under that threat, to keep the media compliant and subdued. Because there’s no finite spectrum for the publishing of printed matter (as there is with broadcasting), the argument for ‘rationing’ a scarce resource isn’t sustainable. In fact, in most democracies, the licensing of printingpresses disappeared two hundred years ago. But in countries like Malaysia and Singapore the right to print newspapers and periodicals is still granted only by government permit – and the permit may be withdrawn if the government doesn’t like what the media are printing. Broadcasting does present a different case.We might say that a free press should be constrained only in the same way that a private citizen is constrained: by common laws governing issues such as libel, slander, contempt of cour t, trespass, copyright and so on. But the allocation of broadcasting frequencies is determined by international agreements among governments and it’s therefore not only reasonable but also essential for those governments to have mechanisms for controlling their domestic allocation. While, in principle, any citizen might have access to a printing-press, access to the airwaves still requires a ‘gatekeeper’. In a development context, the media have a vital role to play in educating the public, making people aware of their rights, encouraging participative democracy, exerting pressure for enlightened governance and exposing wrongdoing. 22Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual Though, as we’ve seen, digital technology is making a vast multiplicity of outlets technically possible, many economies will be unable to sustain unregulated commercial competition on a very large scale – certainly if there is to be any concern for diversity, quality and publ ic service. This has already been seen in some Balkan states, where political change was accompanied by a headlong rush to set up literally hundreds of commercial stations in countries with tiny populations and a very low GDP. Needless to say, the advertising market couldn’t support this volume of output and many of them didn’t last long.On the commercial front, there are those who argue that’s fine: a free market should indeed be left to find its own level. Few countries-in-transition are likely to agree that such an approach will meet the real needs of their people – particularly of the poor. In a development context, the media have a vital role to play in educating the public, making people aware of their rights, encouraging participative democracy, exerting pressure for enlightened governance and exposing wrongdoing. The development of regulatory and licensing systems in some countries of the former Yugoslavia was also able to mitigate tendencies to u se the airwaves to inflame ethnic hatred.Universality, independence and diversity are key to this concept of public service. Indeed, a colloquium conducted by the New Delhi Centre for Media Studies concluded that: The official media, increasingly market- and consumer-orientated, are out of tune with the values needed to promote broadbased human development. Development communication is most effective when practised as part of social action locally, rather than delivered top-down by media professionals. And here’s another quote from a media conference: The country needs a non-profit information consortium which would provide the kind of information that society needs but which commercial broadcasting is not providing †¦..The gaps which need to be filled are in education, public issues, culture, the arts and children’s programming. A contribution from a country in the developing world? No: in fact the views of an American delegate commenting on the media scene in th e United States. (There’s more about how to ensure you’re really in tune with your audience in Chapters Six and Eight. ) A market-driven commercial sector alone is therefore, for quite understandable reasons, unlikely to meet all the needs of a society, whether rich or developing. So it’s right that there should be a system for awarding broadcasting licences and ensuring that any public-service requirements in the terms of the licence are delivered.It should be clear that what’s being licensed is the provision of a specified service, not just the use of a specified frequency (though that service may, of course, be devoted entirely to sport or to entertainment, if that’s what you want; the classic definition of public-service broadcasting is, after all, that it should ‘inform, educate and entertain’). How should the licences be awarded? Not directly by a ministry, we should maintain, but by that independent regulatory body operating at arm’s-length from government. 23 In most contexts, a straightforward tendering system for granting licences will be perfectly appropriate; but the process must be open, transparent and representative of the public interest. It’s therefore also right that the terms of the licence should be properly demanding.We should expect them to include at least: n Commercial ownership of the broadcasting organisation n Frequencies allocated n Transmission coverage to be achieved n Technical standards n Nature of the service and minimum hours of transmission by programme category n Minimum percentage of locally-produced programming n Minimum percentage of programming commissioned from independent producers (if relevant) n Maximum minutes of advertising material per hour n Compliance with the regulatory codes of practice n Mechanisms for dealing with complaints For multiple-channel distributors such as cable companies there may also be what’s known as a ‘must-carryâ€⠄¢ requirement: that their ‘bundle’ of services must include certain specified channels.This is usually applied to ensure that there’s a free-to-air public-service element in the total offering. programmes and its treatment – it should always be a non-governmental body which is responsible for monitoring and judging performance. So, in most cases, it will make sense to entrust both kinds of activity to the same independent body. It’s important too that, as well as dealing with compliance and the ethical responsibilities of the media, the regulatory body may be given a duty to protect their freedoms and to speak out when they come under threat, from whatever source. Independent regulatory bodies How should such a body be set up and the members of its governing board appointed?Ultimately, even if indirectly, this is bound to be a function of government or, preferably, of some kind of cross-party mechanism. But there are ways of ensuring that the nomin ees are not just politicians’ cronies or political placemen. In some countries, vacancies on regulatory bodies have to be advertised and, in principle, anybody may apply and selection is overseen by an independent public appointments commission; that’s the UK’s system. In others, particular interest groups (industry, trade unions, religious bodies, arts organisations, the education sector and so on) may have the right to nominate candidates; that’s the case in Germany.And South African law requires the members of its Independent Communications Authority to have ‘suitable qualifications, expertise and experience in the fields of, among others, broadcasting and telecommunications policy, engineering, technology, frequency band planning, law, marketing, journalism, entertainment, education, economics, business practice and finance’. Compliance with licence terms In ensuring compliance, it may be that the quantitative aspects of the licence terms (the elements which can be measured objectively and aren’t matters of judgement – such as transmitter coverage, hours broadcast, percentage of local programming and so on) could be ensured by a government agency. But in qualitative matters – the content of 2 Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual A tall order, you may think.But even when the appointments have ultimately to be endorsed by a minister, such measures may at least ensure that the regulator is broadly representative of society in general. Under the South African system it is parliament, rather than the government, which oversees the appointments process. Appointments are also made on a rotating basis – so avoiding ‘clean-sweep’ change at politically sensitive times such as the run-up to elections – and the regulator’s independence is constitutionally assured; legislation limits ministerial powers to broad policy directives (which must be published) and exclude s any government involvement in particular licensing decisions.All of this challenges ‘the Ministry of Information mentality’. In other countries, even where the transplanting of patterns of parliamentary government and elections have established a formal framework of legitimacy – as in some South-east Asian countries – the habits and attitudes required for a healthy civic culture and true participatory democracy have often remained undeveloped. The regulatory body will, of course, also need a team of professional full-time staff to implement policy on the ground. They are likely to require regular reports and returns on quantitative compliance and may sample-monitor output or conduct spotchecks on qualitative matters, both editorial and technical.And there will usually be an annual assessment meeting at which the broadcaster will be held to account for its overall performance. responsibility not only for awarding licences but also for ensuring compliance with their terms. Unless with this responsibility comes the power to impose sanctions on transgressors, the regulator will be a toothless creature. The government should therefore also delegate to the regulator the power of applying sanctions: for instance, to admonish broadcasters, to require them to broadcast corrections and / or apologies, to fine them, to suspend their licences – or even ultimately to revoke a licence altogether. (A commercial broadcaster in Britain was once cautioned for a breach of the productplacement rules.A second flagrant violation of the code brought it a fine of ? 00,000. More recently, a broadcaster was fined more than ? 1 million for the fleecing of viewers during a phone-in competition. ) But the more extreme penalties should seldom, if ever, need to be invoked, if only because of the broadcasters’ instincts for self-preservation. The regulator will probably draw up more than one code with which broadcasters must comply if they’r e to retain their licences. There’s likely to be, for instance, a technical code and a code governing advertising practice. But the most vital will be the programme or editorial code, which embodies the rules by which the station’s day-to-day output will be judged.Provided that broadcasters have in place proper systems for ensuring compliance with the codes (such as the principle of ‘referring up’ – see page 82), they can be a powerful shield in the face of criticism, whether from governments or from other sources. Appendix A suggests how such a programme code might work. It’s not an example from any single source but a compilation and a distillation of sound principles from several Regulatory codes The regulatory body has devolved to it the 2 The regulatory body has devolved to it the responsibility not only for awarding licences but also for ensuring compliance with their terms. Unless with this responsibility comes the power to impose san ctions on transgressors, the regulator will be a toothless creature. contexts – both from regulatory instruments and from broadcasters’ own internal codes of practice.Nor is it a formula for universal application: any such code must be drawn up with proper sensitivity to the culture of local society. But it’s not a bad summary of the kind of standards to which we should, as professionals, aspire. The acknowledgement of cultural differences is essential – and this isn’t an issue only between (as it’s often now presented) the Muslim and the nonMuslim world. Western nations too have their own taboos and nuances of acceptability. American programmes have often to be adapted for transmission in Britain because of what’s seen as excessively violent content; on the other hand, American audiences tend to have a rather more prudish attitude to sexuallyexplicit content than do Europeans.In its coverage of a terrorist bomb incident, Italian tele vision felt able to show much more horrific illustration of the carnage than did British television – though both had access to exactly the same footage. At an educational television conference (admittedly some years ago now), the Danish delegation showed a teenage sexeducation programme which addressed menstruation in a frank and open way. The broadcasters from Southern Europe, including Bavaria – and also, interestingly, those from Israel – said at the time that it would be impossible for them to transmit such a programme to schools. Repeatedly, the model code emphasises the need to protect children from inappropriate, manipulative or potentially corrupting material.Some regulators aim to achieve this by imposing a mandatory ‘watershed’ in the schedule – a time (usually around 2:00) before which all broadcast material should be suitable for family viewing and listening but after which more ‘adult’ treatments are acceptable. Su ch a watershed is likely to be variable at times of rapid social change. Some would argue that, in the video age, it’s also become unrealistic. Many primary school teachers can tell horror-stories of how even very young children have been able to view at home material they would never be allowed to see in a cinema. Again, this is a matter which has to be resolved within the local context, with on-air warnings where appropriate. Editorial freedom and disclosure Day-to-day editorial management is covered  Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual in Chapter Eight. But there are two aspects with legal implications which we should consider here. The first is the disclosure by the media of ostensibly confidential information which they acquire through leaks. The model code in Appendix A makes it quite clear that leaking is generally done not by the media but to the media, often by politicians themselves (or by companies, or whatever) or by their representatives. Any entity wit h a vested interest may quite sensibly want to keep some of the information it possesses under wraps and to invoke sanctions against employees who leak it. But maintaining that ecurity is their responsibility, not the media’s. If such information should come the way of the media, it’s their role in civil society to disclose it for public consideration in the public interest (think of Watergate). This principle was well put by one of the most famous editors of The Times, John Thaddeus Delane, as long ago as 82: The first duty of the Press is to obtain the earliest and most correct intelligence of the events of the time and instantly, by disclosing them, make them the common property of the nation †¦.. The Press lives by disclosures; whatever passes into its keeping becomes a part of the knowledge and history of our times.In countries with strong freedomof-information laws, such as the Scandinavian countries, the United States, Australia and New Zealand, this prin ciple is clear and explicit and is a significant enabler of investigative journalism. On the other hand, a law such as Britain’s Official Secrets Act of 1914 (passed as a panic measure, with little debate, in the run-up to the First World War) made even the possession of restricted official information a criminal offence. Effectively, it allowed a journalist to be imprisoned simply for doing his or her job. That’s not, we should maintain, an appropriate use of the criminal law. The second issue is the protection of sources. In some countries (in Sweden, for example) media practitioners are protected by law from being compelled to reveal the sources of their information.But almost everywhere, even without such legal protection, they accept a moral and professional obligation not to disclose a source when they’ve given their word not to do so. Journalists have gone to prison rather than betray this confidentiality: in 2005 in the United States a federal judge jail ed Judith Miller for refusing to confirm the source of leaked information in the Plame case; in 2006 Lance Williams and Mark FainaruWada were sentenced to 8 months for contempt of court for a similar refusal in a case involving alleged drug-taking by professional athletes. Without that assurance – and the confidence that it will be honoured – much journalism in the public interest would be impossible.Lord Denning, when he was Britain’s most senior appeal-court judge, put it like this: If the press were compelled to disclose their sources they would soon be bereft of information which they ought to have. Their sources would dry up. Wrongdoing would not be disclosed †¦.. Unfairness would go unremedied †¦.. Misdeeds in the corridors of power – in companies or in government departments – would never be known. 2 (Please note that these are the words of a senior member of the judicial establishment, not of some wild-eyed, gung-ho media revolu tionary. ) The case-history on page 37 gives an example (from India) in which investigative journalism discovered serious criminal activity, exposed it in the public interest, enabled the criminals to be brought to justice and initiated significant improvements in health-safety practices. Media ownershipThe media are an industry and media development is a global phenomenon. Driven by technology and the market, media industries are everywhere proliferating, fragmenting, combining and diversifying. No country can insulate itself completely from these trends. And, indeed, foreign ownership can bring important inward investment to the country, in the media as in other fields. In some countries it may also provide some guarantee of media freedom. There can clearly be no universal formula for what degree of foreign ownership is acceptable or desirable but any limitation should certainly be included in the terms of the licence; 15% to 20% is a common figure.The terms should also ensure th at foreign ownership should not traduce the interests, culture and heritage of the host country. More than one government has sold off the seed-corn of its frequency spectrum to foreign providers, only to see the local audience sold short. When television was first launched in Fiji, the government granted the New Zealand company TVNZ a monopoly for twelve years of its only terrestrial channel. In a small developing country, the broadcaster’s rigorously commercial plan was, unsurprisingly, based on low capital investment, minimum operating expenditure and a high level of low-cost imported programming from Australia and New Zealand.Locallyproduced programming accounted for only 0% of the output and there was no adaptation even of international commercials for local audiences. There was nothing at all underhand in any of this: it was all clearly spelt out in the business plan which the government accepted, But local dissatisfaction with the service lasted for many years. Cross- media ownership is another matter. It would self-evidently be unhealthy for democratic pluralism if a single provider were to own, say, all the major newspapers and all the radio and television outlets in any country. Restrictions on such crossownership are clearly in the public interest and should be part of the terms of the licence; again, 20% is a common limitation.Indeed, there’s a good case for setting the permitted levels in the primary legislation. The funding of broadcasting This is another area in which the tectonic plates are shifting. Public-service broadcasting is generally funded through a statutory levy on households equipped to receive its transmissions. There are many ways of collecting this fee. In Britain, viewers have to purchase a licence by mail, at a post-office or on-line. They may pay it by instalments; but, if they own or rent a television set, they must have a licence even if they never watch the public-service channels it funds (the publicly-funded radio services are free). Not to pay is actually a criminal, not a civil, 2 Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual ffence. The licence fee is thus effectively a regressive poll-tax – though one to which, historically, there’s been little public resistance. That may soon change. Other countries use different methods of collection: in France it’s now added to the annual bill for local property taxes; in Macedonia it’s an addition to the monthly electricity bill. In other countries, as in Australia, it comes in the form of a government grant paid for through general taxation. In most countries public-service broadcasters are now subject to hybrid funding, whereby a proportion of their income comes from public sources but much of it has to be raised commercially.Hybrid funding can lead to tensions between public and purely commercial broadcasters when it leads the former to chase ratings and revenue at the latter’s expense: allegations of unfair ly-subsidised competition and a dilution of the public-service mission are very common. In the United States, the stations of the Public Service Broadcasting channel supplement their core income by seeking, through energetic on-air campaigns, free-will donations from the people of the communities they serve. Commercial broadcasting has a wider range of funding options. Historically, the most common source has been advertising revenue, derived from selling air-time for commercials in slots between and during programmes across the schedule.The proliferation of outlets is inevitably diluting this as a source of income. And, as technology enables viewers to ‘skip’ the commercials if they want to, it provides a less and less secure income stream. Another source is sponsorship, when an organisation pays to have its product or identity associated with a programme or with a broadcast event. Sponsorship too is going through a process of change. Whereas, in the past, it was regar ded almost as the equivalent of a donation, it’s now much more aggressively brand-orientated. In the future, as the market fragments, it’s likely to shift its emphasis even more closely to the individual consumer.An area of some controversy is product placement when, rather than buying advertising air-time, an advertiser pays to have the product included prominently within the editorial content of a programme; it’s long been an accepted practice in feature films. For years, ‘undue prominence’ of this kind has been prohibited by broadcasting regulators (and by self-regulating public-service broadcasters); but the new ability of viewers to evade the commercial breaks is making such placement an attractive alternative – and probably unstoppable, at least within fictional and entertainment formats. It should, however, have no place in news and current affairs programmes, where it would clearly jeopardise editorial independence. Then there is subs cription, where a viewer or listener pays a monthly fee for access to a specified ‘bundle’ of channels which are otherwise encrypted and so unobtainable.An alternative (or a supplement) is pay-perview, whereby the consumer accesses and pays for only the individual programmes he or she wants; this can also be used for video-on-demand services. And then there is the internet, initially used by broadcasters only as a supplementary service to their main channels but now increasingly a production and distribution medium in its 29 own right. As with newspaper web-sites, most internet broadcasting is still free to the consumer, as it’s seen as a spin-off from the core business – even if it costs the supplier a great deal of money. At present most providers mitigate those costs by selling advertising on the website but we may well see new kinds of subscription and pay-per-view extended to these services too.Nor should we forget the programmes themselves as sources of funding. Through co-production, several broadcasters may contribute to the production budget in return for the right to transmit the result. It gives the participants access to formats and scales of production they couldn’t individually afford. Programme sales of completed productions to other broadcasters can also provide a significant revenue stream for high-volume producers and there may also be a market for retail sales to the public of cassettes or DVDs. The use of premium telephone lines in audience-participation formats such as phone-ins can generate a useful supplement to mainstream income, as can SMS messaging.Small local stations may also compete – or even collaborate – with the local press in classified advertising (‘small-ads. ’). Where programmes – particularly longrunning series – attract large audiences, merchandising can be a significant revenue-earner. Apart from recordings of the programmes themselves, spin-off pr oducts such as tie-in books, toys and games can thrive on the publicity generated by the original broadcasts. Branded products promoting the identity of a broadcaster or a channel can also increase consumer awareness, particularly if they are distributed as part of a presence at public events. The governance of media organisationsIf we assume a single, common regulatory body for all broadcasting (see page 20), there’s no reason why public-service and commercial broadcasters shouldn’t also adopt a common kind of corporate structure, based on normal company practice. This requires that there should be a board of directors and an executive (or board of management). A public-service broadcaster will usually operate under some form of charter and licence; a commercial company will have its own memorandum and articles of association within which the board must operate. The directors effectively constitute the company and are legally responsible for its conduct. They approve its strategy, assure its financial viability, oversee the work of the executive and are answerable to stakeholders for the company’s performance; but their role is essentially to set policy, not to micro-manage the operation.In the case of a commercial company, their prime responsibility is to the shareholders who have funded the company and who expect a return on their investment; in the case of a public-service operator, it’s to th

Possessive Pronouns Formation and Usage

Possessive Pronouns Formation and Usage Possessive pronouns are used to show ownership of an item or an idea. Possessive pronouns are very similar to possessive adjectives and its easy to confuse the two. Here are some examples of possessive pronouns immediately followed by possessive adjectives that are different in structure, but similar in meaning. Possessive Pronouns Examples That dog is hers.That beautiful house on the hill is theirs.The two motorcycles parked over there are his. Possessive Adjective Examples Her dog is over there.Their house on the hill is beautiful.His two motorcycles are parked over there. The easiest way to make sure you are using a possessive pronoun is to notice the placement. Possessive pronouns are always placed at the end of a sentence. They are not placed directly before the noun they modify which is the case for other possessive forms. Possessive Pronoun Usage Possessive pronouns are used to indicate possession when pointing out something to someone. Sentences using possessive pronouns generally use other modifiers to point something out and claim ownership. Examples Whose car is that? Its mine. Its mine.Wheres their house? That house is theirs. Possessive pronouns  are only used when the object of possession (what is yours, hers, ours, etc.) is understood from the context. In other words, what is possessed is usually referred to in a previous statement. The possessive pronoun is then used to clarify to whom the object belongs. Here is a list of possessive pronouns. I - mineYou - yoursHe - hisShe - hersWe - oursYou - yoursThey - theirs Is this your lunch? - No, that one over there is mine.Whose tennis rackets are those? - Theyre yours!Whose house is it? - Its his.Do you know who that belongs to? - Its hers.This isnt your house. Its oursWhose cars are these? - Theyre yours.Whose dog is that? - Its theirs. Possessive nouns are also be used in the same manner as possessive pronouns when stating that something belongs to someone in particular. Examples Whose cell phone is that? - Its Johns.Who do these computers belong to? - Theyre our parents. Possessive Pronoun Checklist Possessive pronouns are used when the object of possession is understood from the contextPlace possessive pronouns directly at end of sentencesPossessive pronouns are very similar in usage to possessive adjectivesPossessive pronouns are used when the context is clear who is in possession of an objectNote the similarity in form between possessive pronouns and adjectives Use these resources for more detailed information on other individual possessive forms: Possessive Nouns - For example, Johns house, the bicycles color, etc.Possessive Adjectives - For example, our neighborhood, his niece, etc. This general guide to possessive forms quickly compares all three types of possessive forms.

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dfdgdfgdgd essays theory of symbolic interactionism. The symbolic interactionism theory holds six basic premises, which Mead feels, help to guide society. The first premise is that social interaction is achieved through a system of shared meanings of common language, body movement, and symbols. The next premise is that through this socialization, humans learn the meanings of their symbolic environment, and emerge as a social entity from the reactions of others. The third premise theorizes that self-images, norms, and values change much as life goes on. This happens because social life a flexible interaction for the individual and society. The next premise is that sensitizing concepts such as interactions, symbols, meanings, process, emergence, and self-concept are used to study crime and deviance. The fifth premise is based on the idea that societal crime and deviance are a product of social control. The final premise is that from a micro perspective, the study of meanings prevails over the study of motives, and the study of labels is more important than the deviant act itself. I believe that the symbolic interactionism theory holds a valid argument as to the cause of social control. Most criminals begin their life of deviance at an early age. They grow up learning that crime and deviance are acceptable. They learn this through interactions with others. A prime example of this is the life of John Gotti. John Gotti was reputed to be the head of the largest criminal organization in the 1970s and 1980s. John Gotti did not just decide to become a criminal out of the nowhere. He grew up in an area surrounded by crime and deviance. His interpretation of his surrounding environment was that crime and deviance was an acceptable and respected way to live (Capeci and Mustain). Another example of deviance and crime through interactionism is Michael Dowd. Michael Dowd was a New York City police officer who was fired for being corrupt. In his testimony ...

The Chemistry of Theobromine

The Chemistry of Theobromine Theobromine belongs to a class of alkaloid molecules known as methylxanthines, which naturally occur in as many as 60 different plant species and include caffeine (the primary methylxanthine in coffee) and theophylline (the primary methylxanthine in tea). Theobromine is the primary methylxanthine found in products of the cocoa tree, theobroma cacao. Effects of Theobromine on Humans Theobromine affects humans similarly to caffeine, but on a much smaller scale. Theobromine is mildly diuretic (it increases urine production), is a mild stimulant, and relaxes the smooth muscles of the bronchi in the lungs. In the human body, theobromine levels are halved between 6-10 hours after consumption. Theobromine has been used as a drug for its diuretic effect, particularly in cases where cardiac failure has resulted in an accumulation of body fluid. It has been administered with digitalis in order to relieve dilatation. Because of its ability to dilate blood vessels, theobromine also has been used to treat high blood pressure. Dangers of Theobromine Cocoa and chocolate products may be toxic or lethal to dogs and other domestic animals such as horses because these animals metabolize theobromine more slowly than humans. The heart, central nervous system, and kidneys are affected. Early signs of theobromine poisoning in dogs include nausea and vomiting, restlessness, diarrhea, muscle tremors, and increased urination or incontinence. The treatment at this stage is to induce vomiting. Cardiac arrhythmias and seizures are symptoms of more advanced poisoning. Different types of chocolate contain different amounts of theobromine. In general, theobromine levels are higher in dark chocolates (approximately 10 g/kg) than in milk chocolates (1-5 g/kg). Higher quality chocolate tends to contain more theobromine than lower quality chocolate. Cocoa beans naturally contain approximately 300-1200 mg/ounce theobromine (note how variable this is!).

How should we use the public space Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

How should we use the public space - Essay Example This essay deals with public spaces and private interests, which clash to abridge our rights. Let us look for a meaning of the two words ‘public space’. Word ‘Public’ is an adjective which connotes ‘open to all / accessible to all / not private, and, the word ‘Space’ is a noun meaning in this context, ‘an area / expanse’. So in essence, a public space is an expansive area, open to all and one which is not private. Or so, as most of us would like to think. Historically speaking public spaces always existed. The agoras of the ancient Greeks, the chaupals of the northern India and the temple premises of the southern India, the Hyde Park in London are some of the examples of public spaces where people gathered to participate in public discourses. Public interaction and free exchange of opinions and ideas have always resulted in progress of social, political and economical awareness, for the good of the humanity. Modernization and migration of rural populations to urban areas had a significant impact on the traditional meaning and purpose of public spaces. Rampant commercialization is encroaching more and more into our open spaces. Large open spaces with natural endowments like trees, brooks, hills, green fields and meadows are now confined to countryside only and are non-existent in cities, towns and suburbs. While the populations are shifting to suburban areas for reasons of cleaner air and peaceful environs, the natural open spaces even in those areas are also being converted to shopping malls, manicured gardens, water sport centers or walking tracks with a toll gate! These are the neo-public spaces with a private fee, like the neocons with an axe or two to grind. The fast pace of life leaves us practically no time for a stroll round the corner for a quiet chat. With the electronic media blaring its ‘breaking news’ every

Systems anlysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Systems anlysis - Essay Example Normally, a point of sale system is based on a personal computer, which encompasses I/O devices and application-specific programs for the specific surroundings in which it will work. Additionally, there are a wide variety of POS systems which are used in different environments. The functionality and processed included with a POS system depends on the nature and functionality of the business. For instance, a point of sale system for a restaurant should contain a list of all menu items which are stored in a database. In addition, this database will be used by the POS system operator to query for information in many ways. In fact, a large number of business organizations and industries use POS terminals that have a point of sale for instance a help desk, comprising lodging, restaurants, museums, and entertainment. In the past few years there have been huge developments in the field of information technology. As the Internet is increasingly used in every walk of life in the same way, poi nt of sale terminals is now supported through the Internet, which provide an excellent support for remote training and operations management, and keeps track of inventory all through geographically-dispersed locations (Rouse, 2011; POSmatic, Inc., 2013). In addition, POS terminals can be applied to physical POS software and hardware comprising however not limited to touchscreen display, electronic cash register systems, barcode scanners, scales, receipt printers and pole displays. As discussed above, POS systems offer a large number of advantages for all the businesses and industries. The uses and applications of POS systems vary from business to business. Different organizations use different POS systems. In fact, at the present POS systems are used in a large number of different organizations and industries varying from hotels, restaurants and hospitality businesses,

Data Collection Methods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Data Collection Methods - Essay Example Focus group Advantages and Dis-advantagesAccording to Morgan (1996) focus group is a research method devoted to data collection to gather data through group discussion. It is an easy way to listen to diverse views of the research issue. Group discussion deals with real life issues and helps in gathering real time data. However there are several disadvantages of focus group. It is quite expensive and time-consuming research methodology. In focus group that some of the participants are mistaken by the group discussion and they jump to conclusion. It is hard for the moderator to keep the group of people focused on one topic for a long time. Group discussions are not planned. People can go in wrong direction and lot of time is wasted to come back to the original topic. In-group discussion, people take sides, and the mentality of follow the crowd exists. The research interview is defined as â€Å"a two-person conversation initiated by the interviewer for the specific purpose† to find research relevant information and focusing on the interviewee to gather the essential data (Cohen, 2000). The interview involves gathering data through direct verbal interaction between the individuals. Veal (2000) has described interview as a strategy to find out from people about the things, which cannot be observed directly. The interviews are meant to collect data from each respondent face to face. In the interview, each respondent contributes a different perspective of the same question. Personal interviewing provides face-to-face contact with respondents, which permits audible and visual communication with respondents in real time (Joann, 1990).

Project Management Risk Management Case Study (Space Shuttle) Essay

Project Management Risk Management Case Study (Space Shuttle) - Essay Example Could it have been averted? In this essay today, we will look at the mishap from the perspective of Risk Management and try to critically analyze the causes, and lessons learnt from the tragedy. Launching a Space Shuttle has always been a tricky business. With so many complexities to handle and parameters to fulfill simultaneously, it involves a high level of risk. On 1st February 2003, the Flight Control Team at Columbia did not report any issues or problems related to the planned de-orbit and re-entry. The team had indicated no concerns about the debris impact to the left wing during ascent, and it seemed like any other re-entry since all the systems were normal and the weather observations and forecasts were within guidelines. However, as Columbia descended from space into the atmosphere, the heat produced by air molecules colliding with the Orbiter typically caused wing leading-edge temperatures to rise steadily. In the events that followed, a broken message was recorded from the mission commander: â€Å"Roger, uh, bu†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This was the last message from the crew. Soon after that, the space shuttle started disintegrating causing a loud boom and debris being sca ttered in the clear skies of Dallas. In case of any space program, the margin of error has to be next to nil since it not only entails billions of dollars of public money but also many precious lives. With Columbia, too, although the risk probability was extremely high, the consequences were still acceptable. So what went wrong? According to the Columbia Accident Investigation Board (CAIB), politics, budgets, schedule pressure and managerial complacency all contributed in causing the Columbia disaster. The CAIB report also delved deeply into the underlying organizational and cultural issues that led to the accident. However, the most apparent cause seems to be inaccurate risk assessment. In a risk-management scenario similar to the Challenger disaster of 1986, NASA management failed

Strategic Management Plan for Sear's Holding Company Term Paper

Strategic Management Plan for Sear's Holding Company - Term Paper Example Sears Roebuck & Company was planned to enter into a merger with Kmart by Edward Lampert who worked as a hedge-fund manager. The merger was initiated with the aim to intensify the existence of Sears and create Sears Holding Corporation. However, the financial position of Sears Holding Corporation seemed to be worsening post merger along with a drop in their share prices. The company was learnt to be over burdened with debt. A drop was also experienced in the volume of sales of the company. Owing to all these reasons, the company was facing a huge dip in its share prices. To add more, the adjusted earnings of the company were predicted to drop considerably along with a cash crisis. The company had also failed to make payments for its respective credit lines (Laing, 2011). The waning sales, over expending on restructuring the stores, poor merchandising and unwise micromanaging was suffered by the company due to which the share price of the company was estimated to witness a decline by around 50%. As per the Fitch ratings, the company was ranked in the junk territory in terms of its debt. Furthermore, the liquidity of the company was expected to remain insufficient in the year 2012, in case the company fails to exploit the markets for fresh cash. On the other hand, the company was stated to hold a considerable share of inventory along with a significant portfolio of the possessed real estate which ranged from $8 billion to $10 billion. However, the worth of the real estate which was chiefly situated at the Borders was required to be ascertained. Therefore, with the aim to avoid such insufficiency of funds, the company is required to set an appropriate strategic management plan which would assist the company to a significant extent to overcome its seriou s financial crunch by bringing in fresh funds (Laing, 2011). The fresh strategic management plan for the company should entail few considerable alterations in its stores by getting rid of the entire soft-line inventories for the reason of enhancing the sales. The soft-line inventories would entail the poorly performing shoes, jewelry and apparel which have been believed and observed to lack the ability of appealing to the customers in the arena of soft-lines. Hence, it is required for the company to amalgamate few of the outstanding part of the inventory with the offerings of Kmart (Albrecht, Brainard, Fadgen, Jackson & Sengbusch, 2009). The company should also focus on expanding few of its product lines such as the kitchen appliances and dining furnitures. The company should also undertake necessary steps to intensify the advertising activities related to the electronic products that are offered. The mentioned alterations along with the additions would prove to be sufficient to rep lace the soft-lines products to a significant extent. The company should also try and shift its concentration on catalogue & internet retail, automotive repair, consumer appliances as well as electronics retail and supply of building material in order to diversify and attain competitive advantage. In order to strengthen the defensive walls of the company, it needs to consider the options of entering into a few selected partnerships with certain companies, particularly in the field of automotive care (Albrecht, Brainard, Fadgen, Jackson & Sengbusch, 2009). To augment the demand of the amended platform or array of products as well as services, the company requires shifting its degree of emphasis to the adults of the middle class varying from 25 years to 64 years as this particular age group is considered to hold the